[42] Bonaparte dispatched an impassioned defence in a letter to the commissar Saliceti, and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing. In his later years he gained quite a bit of weight and had a complexion considered pale or sallow, something contemporaries took note of. A plebiscite was a national referendum, for which voters were not allowed to debate the issues involved. [285], Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmanoeuvring, of enemy armies emerged. [331] Napoleon learnt of that affair and a letter he wrote about it was intercepted by the British and published widely, to embarrass Napoleon. [217] Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil. [166] Although fighting in Iberia continued, the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last major conflict on the European continent for the next three years. Omissions? 1, p. 7. Tilsit signified the high-water mark of the French Empire. Bonaparte often sent her love letters while on his campaigns. Joséphine had her daughter Hortense marry Napoleon's brother Louis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking large amounts of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring. John Dunne, "Recent Napoleonic Historiography: 'Poor Relation' Makes Good?". During the consulate, Napoleon faced several royalist and Jacobin assassination plots, including the Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800 and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as the Infernal Machine) two months later. On 11 March 1810 by proxy, he married the 19-year-old Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie Antoinette. [c][20] He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. [65] In the end, Napoleon had made no effective alliances in the Middle East. Hitler and Mussolini held plebiscites in which rejection of the dictator’s proposal was unthinkable. This was as true of the Buonapartes as of anyone else related to the Genoese and Tuscan nobilities by virtue of titles that were, to tell the truth, suspect. [263] It is possible he was taller at 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) due to the difference in the French measurement of inches.[264]. As Emperor, he appointed his brothers to Masonic offices under his jurisdiction: Louis was given the title of Deputy Grand Master in 1805; Jerome the title of Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Westphalia; Joseph was appointed Grand Master of the Grand Orient de France; and finally Lucien was a member of the Grand Orient of France. [161] Charles received the French with 150,000 of his own men. [247] "I am of the race that founds empires" he once boasted, deeming himself an heir to the Ancient Romans. [72] The army was left in the charge of Jean-Baptiste Kléber. The very first thing Alexander said to Napoleon was probably well-calibrated: "I hate the English as much as you do". Empress Joséphine had still not given birth to a child from Napoleon, who became worried about the future of his empire following his death. Furthermore, each “yes” or “no” was recorded, along with the name and address of the voter. The real number was 1.5 million. This was rejected by Napoleon, who stated he had promised his ally Austria this would not happen. Napoleon won a series of victories in the Six Days' Campaign, though these were not significant enough to turn the tide. [81][82], Napoleon established a political system that historian Martyn Lyons called "dictatorship by plebiscite". As a part of the Concordat, Napoleon presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles. In introducing the Concordat … [31], The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies abroad. [48] On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for his refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign. Ney, who had boasted to the restored Bourbon king, Louis XVIII, that he would bring Napoleon to Paris in an iron cage, affectionately kissed his former emperor and forgot his oath of allegiance to the Bourbon monarch. The selling price in the Louisiana Purchase was less than three cents per acre, a total of $15 million. Napoleon Bonaparte (/ n ə ˈ p oʊ l i ən ˈ b oʊ n ə p ɑːr t /; French: Napoléon [napɔleɔ̃ bɔnapaʁt]; Corsican: Nabulione; Italian: Napoleone; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French statesman and military leader who led many successful campaigns during the French Revolution and the French Revolutionary Wars, and was Emperor of the French (as Napoleon I) from 1804 until 1814 and again … Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left extensive tissue damage behind. Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period—Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp's Napoléonette (1913)—Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. It was a favourite device of French Emperors Napoleon Bonaparte and Louis Napoleon to endorse their charismatic leadership. Lazar Volin (1970) A century of Russian agriculture. In 1804, a plebiscite made Napoleon emperor. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in the War of the Sixth Coalition against France. When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals. He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition. plebiscite synonyms, plebiscite pronunciation, plebiscite translation, English dictionary definition of plebiscite. [75], Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men; 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague. And in a step that was really quite remarkable and was a preview of the way Napoleon wanted to reign, this step was to be ratified by a national plebiscite. He has been portrayed in hundreds of films and discussed in hundreds of thousands of books and articles. Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies, but then ordered his forces to retreat so that he could feign a grave weakness. He died on 5 May 1821, after confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched his Grande Armée deep into Eastern Europe and annihilated the Russians in June 1807 at the Battle of Friedland. On receipt of intelligence reports on Russia's war preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande Armée to more than 450,000 men. [73] In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee). However, the Allies refused to accept this under prodding from Alexander, who feared that Napoleon might find an excuse to retake the throne. [36][9][37], In July 1793, Bonaparte published a pro-republican pamphlet entitled Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire) which gained him the support of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. As in previous campaigns, his fundamental objective was to destroy one opponent before reinforcements from another could tip the balance of the war. [187] Napoleon was then forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two days later. Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both the legislature and the people had turned against him. His power was confirmed by the new "Constitution of the Year VIII", originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favour, 1,567 opposed). III, book 3.VII", https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0253.xml, "May 10th 1802, "The last cry of innocence and despair, "The British Expeditionary Force to Walcheren: 1809", "Why Napoleon Probably Should Have Just Stayed in Exile the First Time", "The Singular Case of Napoleon's Wallpaper", Inside Longwood – Barry O'Meara's clandestine letters, "Napoleon and the Pope: From the Concordat to the Excommunication", "This Day in Jewish History / The Sanhedrin of Paris Convenes at the Behest of Napoleon", "Most Popular Napoleon Bonaparte Movies and TV Shows", "Greatest cartooning coup of all time: The Brit who convinced everyone Napoleon was short", "The Myth of Napoleon's Height: How a Single Image Can Change History", "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered", "Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system", "Les poids et mesures sous l'Ancien Régime", "Call for Papers: International Napoleonic Society, Fourth International Napoleonic Congress", "A New Napoleonic Campaign for Montereau". General Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks' Egyptian cavalry. [158], The battle was characterized by a vicious back-and-forth struggle for the two villages of Aspern and Essling, the focal points of the French bridgehead. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon's methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies. They gave him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain the title of Emperor. [50] Paul Barras, a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction, knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the improvised forces in defence of the convention in the Tuileries Palace. This was in contrast to the complex uniforms with many decorations of his marshals and those around him. [83] Political observers at the time assumed the eligible French voting public numbered about 5 million people, so the regime artificially doubled the participation rate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the consulate. 12 January: End of official candidates. For other uses, see, Significant civil and political events by year, Several family members held additional titles in. Several new laws restricting the citizenship the Jews had been offered 17 years previously were instituted at that time. [91], Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tactical mistakes preceding the battle, they have also praised his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy, choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north when the vast majority of French invasions came from the west, near or along the coastline. [47] During this period, he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie, about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Désirée. Its potency had weakened with age, however, and he survived to be exiled, while his wife and son took refuge in Austria. Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum; his example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators. [112] Enghien's execution infuriated royal courts throughout Europe, becoming one of the contributing political factors for the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June. [192], Separated from his wife and son, who had returned to Austria, cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic Ocean,[193] Napoleon escaped from Elba in the brig Inconstant on 26 February 1815 with 700 men. In 1802, Napoleon had himself elected consul for life. Others define it as the opposite. [91] The following day, the Austrian army agreed to abandon Northern Italy once more with the Convention of Alessandria, which granted them safe passage to friendly soil in exchange for their fortresses throughout the region. France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after on 26 December. The French Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed the 13 Vendémiaire revolt against the government by royalist insurgents. Several months after Corunna, the British sent another army to the peninsula under the future Duke of Wellington. [17], When he turned 9 years old,[18][19] he moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun in January 1779. To expand his power, Napoleon used these assassination plots to justify the creation of an imperial system based on the Roman model. [115] For the official coronation, he raised the Charlemagne crown over his own head in a symbolic gesture, but never placed it on top because he was already wearing the golden wreath. In response, Napoleon came up with a plan to cut off the Austrians in the celebrated Landshut Maneuver. By 17 May, the main Austrian army under Charles had arrived on the Marchfeld. "[266], The stock character of Napoleon is a comically short "petty tyrant" and this has become a cliché in popular culture. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools (lycées) designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France. [130] At this critical juncture, both Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II decided to engage Napoleon in battle, despite reservations from some of their subordinates. "[258] Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied Napoleon from Camp Fornio in 1797 and on the Swiss campaign of 1798, noted that "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face, too, was very thin, with a dark complexion ... his black, unpowdered hair hung down evenly over both shoulders", but that, despite his slight and unkempt appearance, "His looks and expression were earnest and powerful. They also took the precaution of sending a garrison of soldiers to uninhabited Ascension Island, which lay between St. Helena and Europe. [60], During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He says Napoleon's reputation is exaggerated. The outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence in most of the empire was a result of Napoleon's destabilizing actions in Spain and led to the rise of strongmen in the wake of these wars. Napoleon's own account was: "The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow. Adolf Hitler left nothing but destruction. [94], After a decade of constant warfare, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Ross, commander of the Northumberland. [284] Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon". [128], The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece and was influential in the development of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century. He arrived at Donauwörth on the 17th to find the Grande Armée in a dangerous position, with its two wings separated by 120 km (75 mi) and joined together by a thin cordon of Bavarian troops. The serfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during France's retreat. [193] Two days later, he landed on the French mainland at Golfe-Juan and started heading north. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. [245] He kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. [29] He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace. The development of the code was a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly written and accessible law. Napoleon emerged triumphant over this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm Campaign and a historic success over the Russian Empire and Austrian Empire at the Battle of Austerlitz which led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. [citation needed], The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn in October 1809 was the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in recent memory. "Memory and Political Imagination: The Legend of Napoleon Revisited", This page was last edited on 3 January 2021, at 17:54. [315][316][317], Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory are best understood. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no children.[335]. The assault on the position led to the capture of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh. By April 1805, Britain had also signed an alliance with Russia. Even as Napoleon travelled to Paris, the Coalition forces swept through France (arriving in the vicinity of Paris on 29 June), with the stated intent of restoring Louis XVIII to the French throne. [b][28] In early adulthood, he briefly intended to become a writer; he authored a history of Corsica and a romantic novella. ‘Dionysius can cite a plebiscite of 492 protecting a tribune from interruption at a public meeting,’ More example sentences Cardinal Fesch performed the wedding. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. [243] He was an innovator in using the financial, bureaucratic, and diplomatic resources of France. Detailed information about the coin Medal, Napoléon III (Plébiscite du 8 mai 1870), ** Exonumia **, with pictures and collection and swap management : mintage, descriptions, metal, weight, size, value and other numismatic data [263] Napoleon surrounded himself with tall bodyguards and was affectionately nicknamed le petit caporal (the little corporal), reflecting his reported camaraderie with his soldiers rather than his height. [151], Napoleon then returned to France and prepared for war. On 15 December 1840, a state funeral was held. On the 200th anniversary of the death of the emperor of the french. [117] In December 1804, an Anglo-Swedish agreement became the first step towards the creation of the Third Coalition. [114]", Napoleon's coronation, at which Pope Pius VII officiated, took place at Notre Dame de Paris, on 2 December 1804. [328] Until she met Bonaparte, she had been known as "Rose", a name which he disliked. From Ormea, they headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge. How to use plebiscite in a sentence. [197], The British kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,162 mi) from the west coast of Africa. [310], The large and growing historiography in French, English, Russian, Spanish and other languages has been summarized and evaluated by numerous scholars. Lowe cut Napoleon's expenditure, ruled that no gifts were allowed if they mentioned his imperial status, and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely. Corrections? The fierce resistance of this French army, under André Masséna, gave the northern force some time to carry out their operations with little interference. [a] Napoleon's parents joined the Corsican resistance and fought against the French to maintain independence, even when Maria was pregnant with him. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies in 1814. Frederick William of Prussia initially promised to help the Austrians, but reneged before conflict began. [98] Under the terms of Amiens, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The Ulm Maneuver completely surprised General Mack, who belatedly understood that his army had been cut off. "[259], Denis Davydov met him personally and considered him remarkably average in appearance: "His face was slightly swarthy, with regular features. [261] A nursery rhyme warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate naughty people; the "bogeyman". General Melas had a numerical advantage, fielding about 30,000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded 24,000 French troops. Despite these problems, the Treaties of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon a respite from war and allowed him to return to France, which he had not seen in over 300 days. He trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete the two-year course in one year. [77], While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs. Because a plebiscite offers a way of claiming a popular mandate without officially sanctioning an opposition party, totalitarian regimes also use them to legitimize their power. He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe. Given the victory he had just achieved, the French emperor offered the Russians relatively lenient terms—demanding that Russia join the Continental System, withdraw its forces from Wallachia and Moldavia, and hand over the Ionian Islands to France. One of his major objectives became enforcing the Continental System against the British forces. 1870 January: Nearly 7000 miners went on strike at Creusot, demanding an increase in their pay. Un plébiscite (du latin plebiscitum — de plebs, « plèbe, peuple », et scitum, « décision, décret ») est une consultation sur le désir d'une population à propos d'une importante décision, comme celle de relever d'un État ou d'un autre.Au sens latin du terme, le plébiscite est conçu comme un instrument véritablement démocratique, et non comme celui du césarisme [1]. In Spanish America many local elites formed juntas and set up mechanisms to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain, whom they considered the legitimate Spanish monarch. Farington said Napoleon's eyes were "lighter, and more of a grey, than I should have expected from his complexion", that "His person is below middle size", and that "his general aspect was milder than I had before thought it. Napoleon's ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and he became the first Emperor of the French in 1804. The data origin from a survey refering to the plebiscite in Chile 1988. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. [192] Her name would also be his final word on his deathbed in 1821. The Austrians were alarmed by the French thrust that reached all the way to Leoben, about 100 km from Vienna, and finally decided to sue for peace. William Roberts, "Napoleon, the Concordat of 1801, and Its Consequences". [246] Dwyer states that Napoleon's victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805–06 heightened his sense of self-grandiosity, leaving him even more certain of his destiny and invincibility. [279], Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. Plebiscites have been used to establish political boundaries when it is a question of nationality. [111] In January 1804, his police uncovered an assassination plot against him that involved Moreau and which was ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbon family, the former rulers of France. [169], By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland. Napoleon didn’t trust voters’ opinions, so he had his loyal agents count the votes to make sure the results came out as desired. 2008, p. 2092. Metternich's motivation was to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars. [63], Bonaparte sent General Pierre Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'état and purge the royalists on 4 September—Coup of 18 Fructidor. The hostility of devout Catholics against the state had now largely been resolved. Although the French managed to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed when high rates of disease crippled the French army, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines won a string of victories, first against Leclerc, and when he died from yellow fever, then against Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau, whom Napoleon sent to relieve Leclerc with another 20,000 men.